Molecular diversity and evolution of neuron types in the amniote brain.

The existence of evolutionarily conserved regions in the vertebrate brain is well established. The rules and constraints underlying the evolution of neuron types, however, remain poorly understood. To compare neuron types across brain regions and species, we generated a cell type atlas of the brain of a bearded dragon and compared it with mouse datasets. Conserved classes of neurons could be identified from the expression of hundreds of genes, including homeodomain-type transcription factors and genes involved in connectivity. Within these classes, however, there are both conserved and divergent neuron types, precluding a simple categorization of the brain into ancestral and novel areas. In the thalamus, neuronal diversification correlates with the evolution of the cortex, suggesting that developmental origin and circuit allocation are drivers of neuronal identity and evolution.

A claustrum in reptiles and its role in slow-wave sleep.

The mammalian claustrum, owing to its widespread connectivity with other forebrain structures, has been hypothesized to mediate functions that range from decision-making to consciousness1. Here we report that a homologue of the claustrum, identified by single-cell transcriptomics and viral tracing of connectivity, also exists in a reptile-the Australian bearded dragon Pogona vitticeps. In Pogona, the claustrum underlies the generation of sharp waves during slow-wave sleep. The sharp waves, together with superimposed high-frequency ripples2, propagate to the entire neighbouring pallial dorsal ventricular ridge (DVR). Unilateral or bilateral lesions of the claustrum suppress the production of sharp-wave ripples during slow-wave sleep in a unilateral or bilateral manner, respectively, but do not affect the regular and rapidly alternating sleep rhythm that is characteristic of sleep in this species3. The claustrum is thus not involved in the generation of the sleep rhythm itself. Tract tracing revealed that the reptilian claustrum projects widely to a variety of forebrain areas, including the cortex, and that it receives converging inputs from, among others, areas of the mid- and hindbrain that are known to be involved in wake-sleep control in mammals4-6. Periodically modulating the concentration of serotonin in the claustrum, for example, caused a matching modulation of sharp-wave production there and in the neighbouring DVR. Using transcriptomic approaches, we also identified a claustrum in the turtle Trachemys scripta, a distant reptilian relative of lizards. The claustrum is therefore an ancient structure that was probably already present in the brain of the common vertebrate ancestor of reptiles and mammals. It may have an important role in the control of brain states owing to the ascending input it receives from the mid- and hindbrain, its widespread projections to the forebrain and its role in sharp-wave generation during slow-wave sleep.

Experimental transmission of Enteromyxum scophthalmi (Myxozoa), an enteric parasite of turbot Scophthalmus maximus.

Several experiments were designed to elucidate the modes of transmission of the myxozoan parasite Enteromyxum scophthalmi to turbot Scophthalmus maximus. Direct transmission of the infections was achieved by cohabitation of infected and test fish, through waterborne contamination from the effluent of a tank containing infected fish, and via the oral route using parasite-infected intestines. The transmission of the turbot enteromyxosis was successful in all the fish exposed to the parasite by the 3 routes; accumulated mortality reached 100% at the end of most experiments. The progress of the infections was monitored by study of the histopathology. Influence of the mode of exposure was observed, with the oral route the fastest to initiate the parasite infections. The temperature also affected the course of the infections, which were established earlier at higher water temperature. Direct fish-to-fish transmission of the disease explains the rapid spreading of the turbot enteromyxosis in farms.